Serial no: 2599
Status: Near complete
Last update: 2024-10-11
ຢາສູບ
Tobacco
Nicotiana tabacum L.
Plants
Herbaceous plants
Vegetables and herbs
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Local name:
ຢາເສັ້ນ ( Cultivated tobacco and Virginia tobacco)
Synonyms
:
Nicotiana chinensis Fisch. ex Lehm.
Nicotiana fruticosa Moc. & Sessé ex Dunal
Nicotiana latissima Mill.
Nicotiana mexicana Schltdl.
Nicotiana mexicana var. rubriflora Dunal
Nicotiana pilosa Dunal
Nicotiana tabaca St.-Lag.
Nicotiana fruticosa Moc. & Sessé ex Dunal
Nicotiana latissima Mill.
Nicotiana mexicana Schltdl.
Nicotiana mexicana var. rubriflora Dunal
Nicotiana pilosa Dunal
Nicotiana tabaca St.-Lag.
Family:
Solanaceae
Close relatives:
Description:
Nicotiana tabacum is an annual or short-lived perennial plant that can grow up to 2.5 meters tall. Its leaves are egg-shaped to lance-shaped (ovate-lanceolate) or oval (elliptical), with smooth edges, and range from 5 to 50 cm in length and 5 to 25 cm in width. The plant produces funnel-shaped flowers that are yellowish at the base, with light pink or some-times red, yellowish, or greenish lobes. These flowers are grouped in branched clusters (inflorescences) known as thyrsoid panicles. The fruit consists of dry capsules that split into two parts, each containing 2,000 to 5,000 small, egg-shaped to round seeds
Sources: [4]
Sources: [4]
Ecology
Global distribution:
Antarctic, Argentina Northeast, Bolivia, Mexico, Siberia, America, Suramérica.
Distribution in Laos
:
North Laos Highlands
Northern Mekong Corridor
Annamite Highlands and Xieng Khuang Plateau
Vientiane Plain
Northern Annamites
Central Annamites
Lower Annamites
Southern Annamites
Southern Mekong Corridor
Boloven Plateau
Northern Mekong Corridor
Annamite Highlands and Xieng Khuang Plateau
Vientiane Plain
Northern Annamites
Central Annamites
Lower Annamites
Southern Annamites
Southern Mekong Corridor
Boloven Plateau
Landscape units
:
Upland fields with crops
Rice paddy
Other farmland
Home gardens
Rice paddy
Other farmland
Home gardens
Endemism in Laos:
Introduced
Invasiveness
:
Not invasive
IUCN status
:
Not applicable
Lao official status
:
None
Use
Use types:
Medicine
Farming activities
Culture and religion
Use not advised
Farming activities
Culture and religion
Use not advised
Comments on use types:
Medicine: Tobacco leaves are boiled and applied to abscesses to help draw them out. The leaves can be smoked to help preserve teeth and prevent tooth decay. Crushed dry tobacco leaves are mixed with water to create a solution used for washing hair. This tobacco-water mixture is typically left on the hair for 15-20 minutes to help eliminate lice. Tobacco leaves mixed with salt helps prevent Leeches from sticking. [7]
Farming: Tobacco mixed with water spray is a good way to get rid of insects and aphids on plants and vegetables. [15]
Culture and religion: In Laos, tobacco is used in various ceremonies, such as in the Bai Sri ceremony. and the bride and groom proposal ceremony. It is also used in various traditions [8].
Use not advised: We do not recommend using this plant for Smoking is the cause of around 90% of lung cancers [9], [10]. it is also the major cause of cancers of the mouth, throat, oesophagus, pharynx, larynx (voice box), tongue, lips, and salivary glands [10]. Smoking causes 70% (or more) of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD) such as emphysema. Emphysema is a lung disease that makes it harder and harder for people to breathe. Smokers are 2 to 4 times more at risk of developing heart disease, which can lead to heart attacks, than non-smokers [10] and to diseases of the blood vessels [9], [10].
Note: On behalf of the Pha Khao Lao Project We express our concern for the Lao people, considering the impact on their health and the environment. We do not recommend smoking. For your own good health and good environment.
Domestication:
Domesticated
Seasonal availability:
January
April
May
June
July
September
October
November
December
April
May
June
July
September
October
November
December
Management:
Overview:
Temperature: The most suitable temperature for growing tobacco is between 21 to 26 degrees. Daytime temperature should not exceed 29 to 32 degrees and nighttime temperature should not be lower than 18 to 21 degrees, otherwise the tobacco plant will grow slowly [15]. Tobacco requires a frost-free growing period of 90 to 120 days. A dry period is essential for ripening and harvesting the leaves [12].
Rainfall: The optimum amount of rain for tobacco growth is 25 to 35 mm per 10 days period, corresponding to 250 to 1,270 mm per growing season. Continuous light rains are better for the growth of tobacco, than short and heavy showers [15]. Excess rainfall can result in thin, lightweight leaves, and sun-cured tobacco requires a relatively dry climate to develop its full aroma. [12]
Planting soil conditions: Tobacco grows best in well-aerated, drained soils with a pH of 5 to 6.5, with different types requiring specific soil textures, such as sandy soil for flue-cured tobacco and silty or clay loam for air-cured dark tobacco [12].
Variety selection:
Broadleaf varieties are traditional varieties with large stems and thick leaves. They contain more nicotine and are not commonly grown because they are not popular among factories.
Narrow leaf type: This is the most popular type of tobacco grown for delivery to processing plants.
Wild tobacco: A type of tobacco often found in nature that is not used for smoking. The leaves are slender, with serrated edges, and the petioles are slightly angular.
Source: [15]
Land preparation:
Prepare land like a vegetable plot: 1-meter wide and with appropriate length. The soil must be smooth because tobacco seeds are tiny. If the soil has difficulty absorbing water, sawdust or sand should be sprinkled on top to prevent the seeds from flowing away when watering. [15]
Planting techniques:
Tobacco is sown on seed beds and transplanted 40 to 60 days after sowing when seedlings are about 15 cm tall. During the initial weeks, seedbeds are often covered to protect young seedlings from unfavourable weather conditions. [12]
After transplanting, tobacco plants are spaced between 1.2 to 0.9 metres by 0.9 to 0.6 metres, depending on the variety. Crop rotation is recommended after one or two seasons, with non-susceptible crops such as grass, sorghum, millet, and maize to prevent issues like root eelworm. [12]
Care and maintenance:
Planting and tilling: After planting, it is important to take care of the health of the tobacco plants. If any tobacco plants are found dead, they should be replanted immediately within a week after planting the first crop. For tilling, it is recommended to loosen the soil when it is compacted, which will prevent water from seeping in. This can be done every two weeks or as needed. [15]
Fertilization: Tobacco has specific nutritional requirements, particularly a need for magnesium oxide (MgO). Achieving optimal growth and results necessitates the addition of chemical fertilizers. A recommended fertilizer formula is 04-16-24+4 (MgO), applied at a rate of 100-150 kilograms per Rai. Alternatively, the formula 06-18-24+4 (MgO) can be applied in two doses: First application: 7-10 days after planting and Second application: 25-30 days after planting. [15]
Topping Tobacco Plants: Topping involves removing the tops, branches, flowers, and 4-7 small, imperfect leaves from tobacco plants. This practice encourages water and nutrient accumulation in the remaining leaves, thereby enhancing leaf quality. [15]
Watering: if rainfall is sufficient, additional watering is unnecessary. However, during dry periods or when rain is absent, watering becomes essential. For newly planted tobacco, watering should be carried out 1-2 times daily during the initial week, ensuring sufficient moisture for establishment. Subsequently, the frequency of water-ing should be gradually reduced, transitioning to once a week to maintain optimal soil moisture levels. [15]
Pest and disease control
Root rot (Damping off): [13]
Cause: Fungal disease caused by Pythium or Rhizoctonia
Symptoms: Collapse of young seedlings in patches leading to uneven stand. Young seedlings develop a soft, brown watery rot, the stems being squeezed or constricted, and the seedlings eventually falling over and dying, leading to wet rot.
Prevention and elimination: During the summer the fungus can be destroyed from the soil by deep ploughing (loosening the soil). Another method is to prepare the seed beds that are 15 cm high with drainage channels or also to avoid overcrowding of seedlings when planting them.
Anthracnose disease: [13]
Cause: Fungal disease caused by Colletotrichum tabacum.
Symptoms: Small, light green to white water-soaked spots on young leaves that enlarge in wet weather, forming oily, circular spots about 3 mm in diameter. These spots eventually dry out, becoming papery, thin, and grey white with a brown border. Affected leaves become wrinkled and distorted. In severe cases, elongated black or brown lesions appear on the midrib (central vein) and petiole (leaf stalk). On the stem, multiple elongated or oblong (oval-shaped) sunken brown lesions develop, rendering the seedlings unsuitable for transplanting.
Infestation: Usually occurs in high humidity and low light environment.
Preventative management: Prepare seedlings correctly. Do not use previously infected seeds. Mix cyanide chemicals into the soil at the rate of 110 grams/10 square meters, 7 centimeters deep. [15]
White mold powdery mildew: [13]
Cause: Soil borne disease caused by the Oomycete Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae. Cloudy weather, prolonged dampness and temperatures below 22°C
Symptoms: Blackening of roots and black lesions on the leaves.
Preventative management: Prevention methods used for Root rot, work as well for the Blank shank.
Harvesting:
Tobacco is harvested 70 to 130 days after transplanting using one of two methods: (1) Cutting the entire plant, splitting or spearing the stalk, and hanging it on a tobacco stick or lath (thin wooden strip) and (2) Removing the leaves individually at intervals as they mature [14].
Curing: Curing is the process of drying and ageing tobacco leaves to develop their flavour, aroma, and overall quality. Curing tobacco involves four key steps: wilting, yellowing, colouring, and drying, which help develop the desired properties of the leaves. The most common curing methods are air, fire, and flue curing, with sun curing also used for some types.
Air Curing: Tobacco is cured using mechanical ventilation in buildings, with additional heat from burning coke, charcoal, or petroleum gas if needed. This method takes one to two months.
Fire Curing: Similar to air curing, but with open wood fires added to the curing barn after a few days. The smoke gives the tobacco a distinctive creosote (tar) aroma. This process can take three to ten weeks, depending on the desired finish.
Flue Curing: Involves heating the tobacco with carefully controlled heat from flues (pipes) connected to furnaces. This method takes four to eight days. The process requires close monitoring of the leaves' chemical and physical changes.
Sun curing is primarily used for aromatic types of tobacco and, to a lesser extent, for air-cured types.
Source: [14]
Temperature: The most suitable temperature for growing tobacco is between 21 to 26 degrees. Daytime temperature should not exceed 29 to 32 degrees and nighttime temperature should not be lower than 18 to 21 degrees, otherwise the tobacco plant will grow slowly [15]. Tobacco requires a frost-free growing period of 90 to 120 days. A dry period is essential for ripening and harvesting the leaves [12].
Rainfall: The optimum amount of rain for tobacco growth is 25 to 35 mm per 10 days period, corresponding to 250 to 1,270 mm per growing season. Continuous light rains are better for the growth of tobacco, than short and heavy showers [15]. Excess rainfall can result in thin, lightweight leaves, and sun-cured tobacco requires a relatively dry climate to develop its full aroma. [12]
Planting soil conditions: Tobacco grows best in well-aerated, drained soils with a pH of 5 to 6.5, with different types requiring specific soil textures, such as sandy soil for flue-cured tobacco and silty or clay loam for air-cured dark tobacco [12].
Variety selection:
Broadleaf varieties are traditional varieties with large stems and thick leaves. They contain more nicotine and are not commonly grown because they are not popular among factories.
Narrow leaf type: This is the most popular type of tobacco grown for delivery to processing plants.
Wild tobacco: A type of tobacco often found in nature that is not used for smoking. The leaves are slender, with serrated edges, and the petioles are slightly angular.
Source: [15]
Land preparation:
Prepare land like a vegetable plot: 1-meter wide and with appropriate length. The soil must be smooth because tobacco seeds are tiny. If the soil has difficulty absorbing water, sawdust or sand should be sprinkled on top to prevent the seeds from flowing away when watering. [15]
Planting techniques:
Tobacco is sown on seed beds and transplanted 40 to 60 days after sowing when seedlings are about 15 cm tall. During the initial weeks, seedbeds are often covered to protect young seedlings from unfavourable weather conditions. [12]
After transplanting, tobacco plants are spaced between 1.2 to 0.9 metres by 0.9 to 0.6 metres, depending on the variety. Crop rotation is recommended after one or two seasons, with non-susceptible crops such as grass, sorghum, millet, and maize to prevent issues like root eelworm. [12]
Care and maintenance:
Planting and tilling: After planting, it is important to take care of the health of the tobacco plants. If any tobacco plants are found dead, they should be replanted immediately within a week after planting the first crop. For tilling, it is recommended to loosen the soil when it is compacted, which will prevent water from seeping in. This can be done every two weeks or as needed. [15]
Fertilization: Tobacco has specific nutritional requirements, particularly a need for magnesium oxide (MgO). Achieving optimal growth and results necessitates the addition of chemical fertilizers. A recommended fertilizer formula is 04-16-24+4 (MgO), applied at a rate of 100-150 kilograms per Rai. Alternatively, the formula 06-18-24+4 (MgO) can be applied in two doses: First application: 7-10 days after planting and Second application: 25-30 days after planting. [15]
Topping Tobacco Plants: Topping involves removing the tops, branches, flowers, and 4-7 small, imperfect leaves from tobacco plants. This practice encourages water and nutrient accumulation in the remaining leaves, thereby enhancing leaf quality. [15]
Watering: if rainfall is sufficient, additional watering is unnecessary. However, during dry periods or when rain is absent, watering becomes essential. For newly planted tobacco, watering should be carried out 1-2 times daily during the initial week, ensuring sufficient moisture for establishment. Subsequently, the frequency of water-ing should be gradually reduced, transitioning to once a week to maintain optimal soil moisture levels. [15]
Pest and disease control
Root rot (Damping off): [13]
Cause: Fungal disease caused by Pythium or Rhizoctonia
Symptoms: Collapse of young seedlings in patches leading to uneven stand. Young seedlings develop a soft, brown watery rot, the stems being squeezed or constricted, and the seedlings eventually falling over and dying, leading to wet rot.
Prevention and elimination: During the summer the fungus can be destroyed from the soil by deep ploughing (loosening the soil). Another method is to prepare the seed beds that are 15 cm high with drainage channels or also to avoid overcrowding of seedlings when planting them.
Anthracnose disease: [13]
Cause: Fungal disease caused by Colletotrichum tabacum.
Symptoms: Small, light green to white water-soaked spots on young leaves that enlarge in wet weather, forming oily, circular spots about 3 mm in diameter. These spots eventually dry out, becoming papery, thin, and grey white with a brown border. Affected leaves become wrinkled and distorted. In severe cases, elongated black or brown lesions appear on the midrib (central vein) and petiole (leaf stalk). On the stem, multiple elongated or oblong (oval-shaped) sunken brown lesions develop, rendering the seedlings unsuitable for transplanting.
Infestation: Usually occurs in high humidity and low light environment.
Preventative management: Prepare seedlings correctly. Do not use previously infected seeds. Mix cyanide chemicals into the soil at the rate of 110 grams/10 square meters, 7 centimeters deep. [15]
White mold powdery mildew: [13]
Cause: Soil borne disease caused by the Oomycete Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae. Cloudy weather, prolonged dampness and temperatures below 22°C
Symptoms: Blackening of roots and black lesions on the leaves.
Preventative management: Prevention methods used for Root rot, work as well for the Blank shank.
Harvesting:
Tobacco is harvested 70 to 130 days after transplanting using one of two methods: (1) Cutting the entire plant, splitting or spearing the stalk, and hanging it on a tobacco stick or lath (thin wooden strip) and (2) Removing the leaves individually at intervals as they mature [14].
Curing: Curing is the process of drying and ageing tobacco leaves to develop their flavour, aroma, and overall quality. Curing tobacco involves four key steps: wilting, yellowing, colouring, and drying, which help develop the desired properties of the leaves. The most common curing methods are air, fire, and flue curing, with sun curing also used for some types.
Air Curing: Tobacco is cured using mechanical ventilation in buildings, with additional heat from burning coke, charcoal, or petroleum gas if needed. This method takes one to two months.
Fire Curing: Similar to air curing, but with open wood fires added to the curing barn after a few days. The smoke gives the tobacco a distinctive creosote (tar) aroma. This process can take three to ten weeks, depending on the desired finish.
Flue Curing: Involves heating the tobacco with carefully controlled heat from flues (pipes) connected to furnaces. This method takes four to eight days. The process requires close monitoring of the leaves' chemical and physical changes.
Sun curing is primarily used for aromatic types of tobacco and, to a lesser extent, for air-cured types.
Source: [14]
Value chains:
The company purchases and processes cigarettes for sale both domestically and abroad. Currently in Laos, tobacco growing areas are expanding to supply factories which generate income for families. [15], [16]
Nutrition
Nutritional values:
Comments on nutritional values:
N/A
| Nutrient | /100g | Remark |
|---|---|---|
| Proteins | N/A | N/A |
| Carbohydrates | N/A | N/A |
| Fats | N/A | N/A |
| Vitamins | N/A | N/A |
| Minerals | N/A | N/A |
| Fibers | N/A | N/A |
References
Photo credits:
Tobacco plant in nature. [1] iNaturalist [Online]. Uploaded on 19 February 2024 by: eyver.
Available: www.inaturalist.org/photos/358943542. [Accessed: 13 September 2024]
Tobacco plant with bloomed flowers. [2] iNaturalist [Online]. Uploaded on 24 February 2023 by: jorgebrito.
Available: www.inaturalist.org/photos/257985460. [Accessed: 13 September 2024]
Dried Tobacco leaves intended for production and consumption. [3] Flickr [Online]. Uploaded on 23 January 2011 by: fredje77. Available:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/14739584@N08/5380993003/in/photostream/. [Accessed: 13 September 2024]
Available: www.inaturalist.org/photos/358943542. [Accessed: 13 September 2024]
Tobacco plant with bloomed flowers. [2] iNaturalist [Online]. Uploaded on 24 February 2023 by: jorgebrito.
Available: www.inaturalist.org/photos/257985460. [Accessed: 13 September 2024]
Dried Tobacco leaves intended for production and consumption. [3] Flickr [Online]. Uploaded on 23 January 2011 by: fredje77. Available:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/14739584@N08/5380993003/in/photostream/. [Accessed: 13 September 2024]
References:
[1] iNaturalist [Online]. Uploaded on 19 February 2024 by: eyver.
Available: www.inaturalist.org/photos/358943542. [Accessed: 13 September 2024]
[2] iNaturalist [Online]. Uploaded on 24 February 2023 by: jorgebrito.
Available: www.inaturalist.org/photos/257985460. [Accessed: 13 September 2024]
[3] Flickr [Online]. Uploaded on 23 January 2011 by: fredje77. Available:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/14739584@N08/5380993003/in/photostream/. [Accessed: 13 September 2024]
[4] National Parks Board, "Nicotiana tabacum L.," Flora & Fauna Web,
Species record last updated on: 20 August 2021. [Online]. Avail-able: https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/6/1/6112. [Accessed: 17 September 2024].
[5] Global Biodiversity Information Facility, "Gbif," Global Biodiversity
Information Facility, [Online]. Available: https://www.gbif.org/. [Accessed: 17 September 2024]
[7] ທິບພາວັນ, ຊ. (2024, ມັງກອນ 29). "ການນຳໃຊ້ຢາສູບ." [Interview].
[8] Souvanhphukdee, A. (2024, January 30). "Pha Khao Lao." [Online].
Available: https://www.phakhaolao.la/stories/%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%B7%E0%BB%88%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%87%E0%BA%AB%E0%BB%8D%E0%BB%88%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%82%E0%BA%BB%E0%BB%89%E0%BA%B2-%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B3%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%AB%E0%BB%8D%E0%BB%8D.
[9] Government, A. (2024, January 31). "The University of Sydney."
[Online]. Available: file:///C:/Users/xp/Downloads/tobacco-health-effects-of-smoking%20(4).
[10] Radio Free Asia (RFA), "Radio Free Asia," [Online]. Available:
https://www.rfa.org/lao/feature/Tabacco_harms_people-02192009124323.html. [Accessed: 01 February 2024].
[11] ຈັນທະວິໄລ, ຄ. (2016). "ພືດເສດຖະກິດ (Cash Crop Production)."
ນະຄອນຫຼວງວຽງຈັນ: ສິງຫາ ປີ 2016.
[12] Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), [Online]. Available:
https://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/crop-information/tobacco/en/. [Accessed: 17 September 2024].
[13] Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), [Online]. Available:
https://ctri.icar.gov.in/for_contro. [Accessed: 18 September 2024].
[14] Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Common Tobacco: Harvest," [Online].
Available: https://www.britannica.com/plant/common-tobacco/Harvest. [Accessed: 18 September 2024].
[15] ກະຊວງກະສິກຳ, & ປ່າໄມ້ (2024, January 30). "Nafri." [Online].
Available: http://lad.nafri.org.la/fulltext/2083-0.pdf. [Accessed: 17 September 2024].
[16] Guerrier, S. "ບັນດາປັດໄຈອັນສຳຄັນທີີ່ມີອິດທິພົນຕໍ່ສະພາບຄວາມຍືນ
ຍົງຂອງຜະລິດຕະພັນ ເຄືີ່ອງປ່າຂອງດົງ ໃນສາມບ້ານຂອງເມືອງນາໝໍ້" CCl project. [Online]. Available: http://lad.nafri.org.la/fulltext/4895-0.pdf. [Accessed: Oct. 2, 2024].
Available: www.inaturalist.org/photos/358943542. [Accessed: 13 September 2024]
[2] iNaturalist [Online]. Uploaded on 24 February 2023 by: jorgebrito.
Available: www.inaturalist.org/photos/257985460. [Accessed: 13 September 2024]
[3] Flickr [Online]. Uploaded on 23 January 2011 by: fredje77. Available:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/14739584@N08/5380993003/in/photostream/. [Accessed: 13 September 2024]
[4] National Parks Board, "Nicotiana tabacum L.," Flora & Fauna Web,
Species record last updated on: 20 August 2021. [Online]. Avail-able: https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/6/1/6112. [Accessed: 17 September 2024].
[5] Global Biodiversity Information Facility, "Gbif," Global Biodiversity
Information Facility, [Online]. Available: https://www.gbif.org/. [Accessed: 17 September 2024]
[7] ທິບພາວັນ, ຊ. (2024, ມັງກອນ 29). "ການນຳໃຊ້ຢາສູບ." [Interview].
[8] Souvanhphukdee, A. (2024, January 30). "Pha Khao Lao." [Online].
Available: https://www.phakhaolao.la/stories/%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%B7%E0%BB%88%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%87%E0%BA%AB%E0%BB%8D%E0%BB%88%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%82%E0%BA%BB%E0%BB%89%E0%BA%B2-%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B3%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%9A%E0%BA%B8%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%AB%E0%BB%8D%E0%BB%8D.
[9] Government, A. (2024, January 31). "The University of Sydney."
[Online]. Available: file:///C:/Users/xp/Downloads/tobacco-health-effects-of-smoking%20(4).
[10] Radio Free Asia (RFA), "Radio Free Asia," [Online]. Available:
https://www.rfa.org/lao/feature/Tabacco_harms_people-02192009124323.html. [Accessed: 01 February 2024].
[11] ຈັນທະວິໄລ, ຄ. (2016). "ພືດເສດຖະກິດ (Cash Crop Production)."
ນະຄອນຫຼວງວຽງຈັນ: ສິງຫາ ປີ 2016.
[12] Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), [Online]. Available:
https://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/crop-information/tobacco/en/. [Accessed: 17 September 2024].
[13] Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), [Online]. Available:
https://ctri.icar.gov.in/for_contro. [Accessed: 18 September 2024].
[14] Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Common Tobacco: Harvest," [Online].
Available: https://www.britannica.com/plant/common-tobacco/Harvest. [Accessed: 18 September 2024].
[15] ກະຊວງກະສິກຳ, & ປ່າໄມ້ (2024, January 30). "Nafri." [Online].
Available: http://lad.nafri.org.la/fulltext/2083-0.pdf. [Accessed: 17 September 2024].
[16] Guerrier, S. "ບັນດາປັດໄຈອັນສຳຄັນທີີ່ມີອິດທິພົນຕໍ່ສະພາບຄວາມຍືນ
ຍົງຂອງຜະລິດຕະພັນ ເຄືີ່ອງປ່າຂອງດົງ ໃນສາມບ້ານຂອງເມືອງນາໝໍ້" CCl project. [Online]. Available: http://lad.nafri.org.la/fulltext/4895-0.pdf. [Accessed: Oct. 2, 2024].
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